Greek Society

Greek emphasis on reasoning bring to their views of nature and society? ADDED Greeks broke with the onomatopoeic outlook and started to view the physical world and human activities through reasoning and logical thinking. What changes did It make to nature and society? -Emphasis on reason marks a turning point for human collocation A) Philosophy -Marks the beginning of scientific thought, had an awareness of cause and effect, exploring the natural phenomena, principles of universe. Traditional mythical explanations are dismissed. -egg. Earthquakes commonly held belief that it was caused by Poseidon, god of the EAI, was offered with a logical explanation on how the earth floated on water. Discovered water as an element and rainbows certainly was not the goddess Iris. – Parricides' concept of unchanging reality apprehended by thought alone Influenced Plato and Is the foundation of metaphysics- the branch of philosophy that attempts to define ultimate reality, or Being. Democratic from Greek mainland renewed the Ionians' concern with the world of matter and reaffirmed their confidence in knowledge derived from sense perfection- and the senses indicated that change did occur in nature. -model of universe: empty space and an infinite number of atoms- a world of colliding atoms- everything behaved according to mechanical principles.Therefore essential to scientific thought thus emerged in embryonic form with Greek philosophers: 1) Natural explanations for physical occurrences (Ionians) 2) The mathematical order of nature (Pythagoras) 3) Logical proof (Parricides) 4) Mechanical structure of the universe (Democratic) with all these logical reasoning and ways of knowing, Greek philosophers pushed thought in a new direction. This approached allowed critical analysis of theories, whereas myths, accepted unconditionally on faith and authority, did not promote discussion and questioning. Made possible theoretical thinking and the systemization of knowledge- as distinc t from the mere observation and collection of data. -made attempt to prove underlying mathematical principles-> demonstrate that certain conclusions must flow from certain hypotheses. -able to distinguish between magic and medicine. B) The Sophists -early Greek thinkers. -they're the professional teachers and urged that Individuals Improve themselves ND their cities by applying reason to their tasks. -they answered a practical need in the Persian Wars. Sophists again arrived at a broader conception of humanity. That slavery was based on force or chance, that Pl were not slaves or master by nature, all Pl were fundamentally alike. -applied reason to human affairs- divine was useless and it's a human invention to prevent Pl from committing crime. -applied reason to law- all these to instill fear to citizens. -however, their doctrines encouraged loss of respect for authority, disobedience to law, neglect to civic duty ND selfish individualism- dangerously weakening community bonds.C) S ocrates -to comprehend nature, cosmologists discovered theoretical reason. -Socrates attacked sophist' relativism and questions them the questions that really mattered:- what is the purpose of live? The values? How to be perfect? But the sophists failed to answer. -indeed, sophists taught the ambitious to succeed in politics, but persuasive oratory and clever reasoning do not instruct a man in the art of living. -Socrates' central concern was the perfection of individual human character, the achievement f moral excellence. He believed that reason was the only proper guide to the most crucial problem of human existence: the question of good and evil. -because wrong thinking?wrong doing -supplied a method of inquiry called dialectics in urging Athenians to think rationally about the problems. -the good life, the moral life, is attained by the exercise of reason and by the development of intelligence- this percept is the essence of Socratic teaching- made the individual the centre of t he universe, reason central to the individual and moral worth the central aim of human life.

Indigenous Art, Music and Dance Essay

Imaginative, artistic, captivating and breathe taking are a few words to describe the true beauty of Indigenous Australian art, music and dance. These three aspects of the Indigenous culture are also part of the Torres Strait Island culture who â€Å"together make up 2. 4% of the Australian population† (Macklin, 2004). These people express their personal experiences and the Indigenous Australian history through art work, dance and song. For example, an art piece may be about the creation of the land. Music can interpret the sounds of the animals or the hunters and the dance be interpreted to the stealing of their children through the stolen generation period. Examine: Art: Art is an important part of the Indigenous culture as it has been passed on for generations. It is an important part of the culture because its emphasised on certain aspects on their history. For example, the dot paintings have been part of the Indigenous Australians paintings history for thousands of years (Atkinson, 2008). Also, we must take into consideration that Indigenous Australian â€Å"art is the oldest ongoing tradition of art in the world†(Clarity Communications, 2007). Thus making their art a treausred part of Autsralian culture. Other paintings that we see are rock carvings, body painting when the Indigenous people would have a ceremonies. All these art forms date back more than 30,000years (Clarity Communications, 2007). The art work today is produced in a different variety but each piece of art work still shows the importance, diversity and richness of the Indigenous culture. Different art works can tell different stories. These stories could be about the stolen generation, the hunting, the land dying, the white people settling, the death of and elder or a close relative and the journey through an elders eyes. Elders used dot paintings and other paintings such as mimi art which is an art about animals, humans and are normally stick figures have no flesh. There is also x-ray art, a traditional style of art that is shown through the fragile bone and showing the flesh inside the body. Rock art is another type of Indigenous art as it one of the most common styles (Banakeem, 2012). It is done by carving the painting or â€Å"figures† into the rock or wall. Body art is also a form of Indigenous art as â€Å"body painting is passed out within strict conventions that are primarily connected to spiritual matters†(Banakeem, 2012). This piece of art work dates back to the early 20thCenturary and we can analyse what this picture could mean by viewing the following keys; Below are the keys; Meeting place Tavel Message Communities Man Woman We are looking st these key features because in groups of 3 or 4, you are to draw a piece of indigenous art using the keys on the PowerPoint. Remeber e h symbol you ise must create a story. You are to tell a story. As you can see, the making of the art can be fun but its never an easy task. As we have supplied you with the materials, the art was gathered from clay or orches. In saying this, we can still enjoy the rich culture of our paintings, the Indigenous paintings. Dance: Dance was formed by the earliest Indigenous Australians and has been past down from many generations (Smitz, 2005). Dance is important to us now as we can look at different ways to move, tell a story and be told a story. The movements vary compared to the movements we see in ballet, jazz or hip hop. The movements aren’t necessarily the jumping around and crawling on the floor- they include their instruments as well. This gathers in the: Hollow log drum Sticks Slap sticks Skin drum These styles of movement include some of the musical instruments such as the the slap sticks, which are boomerangs being hit together, skin drums which is using your own body to make a sound, hollow log drums which are a drummed shaped and sticks which are used to hit against the body or can be used to hit against a hard object, for example, a tree or a rock (Smitz, 2005). To incorporate these instruments into the dance was to add another beat so then the â€Å"imitated bird or animals, could be shared† (Chee, 2012). It is known that â€Å"songs and dance were exchanged often at large ceremonial gatherings† (Atkinson, 2008). Often, the indigenous culture would perform to a higher standard to please the guest tribe or to please the elders or spirits (Atkinson, 2008). Throughout these dancers, the elders would come together and analyse the performance and judge this event either themselves, by a spirit or by the tribes. These tribes would be respectful in the decision and teach the â€Å"winning† tribe the dance that they had won or traded. Music: Music is an important aspect of the Indigenous culture as they use it as inspiration for a painting, the background noise for a tribal chant and for ceremonial reasons. The music that is most commonly heard is the didgeridoo. Th didgeridoo creates a sound when you use your mouth, lips, nose and cheeks. Smitz (2005) states that the didgeridoo is a musical instrument used for the conducting of ceremonies, â€Å"however,the didgeridoo is played by a man and it women at ceremonies† (Smitz, 2005). This means that at ceremonies, the didgeridoo should only be played by men and not women. However, music was to be listened, and play by men, women and children. It was used to create tribe chants, musical backgrounds for a story Music was also used by both men’s and women to create a tribe chants, musical backgrounds for elder stories and for religious purposes. The music brings an important part of the culture to a tip. The didgeridoo is the main component to completing the music for any Indigenous piece of music. When ceremonies occur, there is tradintionally one song and two piece of music because the tribes need to appreciate the elder or elders. The song is the next step bringing the tribe or tribes together through the tribes ceremonial song or chant. This is normally done towards the start of the ceremonies (Atkinson, 2008). Summarise: To summarise, art, music and danced are important aspects of the indigenous culture. The art that is created by the Indgienous Australians tells a story. These stories are about the last, present and future. The Conflicting modification on 13 March 2013 7:16:41 AM: Describe: Imaginative, artistic, captivating and breathe taking are a few words to describe the true beauty of Indigenous Australian art, music and dance. These three aspects of the Indigenous culture are also part of the Torres Strait Island culture who â€Å"together make up 2. 4% of the Australian population† (Macklin, 2004). These people express their personal experiences and the Indigenous Australian history through art work, dance and song. For example, an art piece may be about the creation of the land. Music can interpret the sounds of the animals or the hunters and the dance be interpreted to the stealing of their children through the stolen generation period. Examine: Art: Art is an important part of the Indigenous culture as it has been passed on for generations. It is an important part of the culture because its emphasised on certain aspects on their history. For example, the dot paintings have been part of the Indigenous Australians paintings history for thousands of years (Atkinson, 2008). Also, we must take into consideration that Indigenous Australian â€Å"art is the oldest ongoing tradition of art in the world†(Clarity Communications, 2007). Thus making their art a treausred part of Autsralian culture. Other paintings that we see are rock carvings, body painting when the Indigenous people would have a ceremonies. All these art forms date back more than 30,000years (Clarity Communications, 2007). The art work today is produced in a different variety but each piece of art work still shows the importance, diversity and richness of the Indigenous culture. Different art works can tell different stories. These stories could be about the stolen generation, the hunting, the land dying, the white people settling, the death of and elder or a close relative and the journey through an elders eyes. Elders used dot paintings and other paintings such as mimi art which is an art about animals, humans and are normally stick figures have no flesh. There is also x-ray art, a traditional style of art that is shown through the fragile bone and showing the flesh inside the body. Rock art is another type of Indigenous art as it one of the most common styles (Banakeem, 2012). It is done by carving the painting or â€Å"figures† into the rock or wall. Body art is also a form of Indigenous art as â€Å"body painting is passed out within strict conventions that are primarily connected to spiritual matters†(Banakeem, 2012). This piece of art work dates back to the early 20thCenturary and we can analyse what this picture could mean by viewing the following keys; Below are the keys; Meeting place Tavel Message Communities Man Woman We are looking st these key features because in groups of 3 or 4, you are to draw a piece of indigenous art using the keys on the PowerPoint. Remeber e h symbol you ise must create a story. You are to tell a story. As you can see, the making of the art can be fun but its never an easy task. As we have supplied you with the materials, the art was gathered from clay or orches. In saying this, we can still enjoy the rich culture of our paintings, the Indigenous paintings. Dance: Dance was formed by the earliest Indigenous Australians and has been past down from many generations (Smitz, 2005). Dance is important to us now as we can look at different ways to move, tell a story and be told a story. The movements vary compared to the movements we see in ballet, jazz or hip hop. The movements aren’t necessarily the jumping around and crawling on the floor- they include their instruments as well. This gathers in the, skin drum, hollow log drum, slap sticks and sticks. These styles of movement include some of the musical instruments such as the the slap sticks, which are boomerangs being hit together, skin drums which is using your own body to make a sound, hollow log drums which are a drummed shaped and sticks which are used to hit against the body or can be used to hit against a hard object, for example, a tree or a rock (Smitz, 2005). To incorporate these instruments into the dance was to add another beat so then the â€Å"imitated bird or animals, could be shared† (Chee, 2012). It is known that â€Å"songs and dance were exchanged often at large ceremonial gatherings† (Atkinson, 2008). Often, the indigenous culture would perform to a higher standard to please the guest tribe or to please the elders or spirits (Atkinson, 2008). Throughout these dancers, the elders would come together and analyse the performance and judge this event either themselves, by a spirit or by the tribes. These tribes would be respectful in the decision and teach the â€Å"winning† tribe the dance that they had won or traded. Music: Music is an important aspect of the Indigenous culture as they use it as inspiration for a painting, the background noise for a tribal chant and for ceremonial reasons. The music that is most commonly heard is the didgeridoo. Th didgeridoo creates a sound when you use your mouth, lips, nose and cheeks. Smitz (2005) states that the didgeridoo is a musical instrument used for the conducting of ceremonies, â€Å"however,the didgeridoo is played by a man and it women at ceremonies† (Smitz, 2005). This means that at ceremonies, the didgeridoo should only be played by men and not women. However, music was to be listened, and play by men, women and children. It was used to create tribe chants, musical backgrounds for a story Music was also used by both men’s and women to create a tribe chants, musical backgrounds for elder stories and for religious purposes. The music brings an important part of the culture to a tip. The didgeridoo is the main component to completing the music for any Indigenous piece of music. When ceremonies occur, there is tradintionally one song and two piece of music because the tribes need to appreciate the elder or elders. The song is the next step bringing the tribe or tribes together through the tribes ceremonial song or chant. This is normally done towards the start of the ceremonies (Atkinson, 2008). Summarise: To summarise, art, music and danced are important aspects of the indigenous culture. The art that is created by the Indigenous Australians tells a story. These stories are about the past, present and future. Dance is used to intimidate animals or other people to tells us a story and when music is played, it’s normally the didgeridoo whether its for ceremonial reasons or for other purposes. Conflicting modification on 13 March 2013 7:35:01 AM: Describe: Imaginative, artistic, captivating and breathe taking are a few words to describe the true beauty of Indigenous Australian art, music and dance. These three aspects of the Indigenous culture are also part of the Torres Strait Island culture who â€Å"together make up 2. 4% of the Australian population† (Macklin, 2004). These people express their personal experiences and the Indigenous Australian history through art work, dance and song. For example, an art piece may be about the creation of the land. Music can interpret the sounds of the animals or the hunters and the dance be interpreted to the stealing of their children through the stolen generation period. Examine: Art: Art is an important part of the Indigenous culture as it has been passed on for generations. It is an important part of the culture because its emphasised on certain aspects on their history. For example, the dot paintings have been part of the Indigenous Australians paintings history for thousands of years (Atkinson, 2008). Also, we must take into consideration that Indigenous Australian â€Å"art is the oldest ongoing tradition of art in the world†(Clarity Communications, 2007). Thus making their art a treausred part of Autsralian culture. Other paintings that we see are rock carvings, body painting when the Indigenous people would have a ceremonies. All these art forms date back more than 30,000years (Clarity Communications, 2007). The art work today is produced in a different variety but each piece of art work still shows the importance, diversity and richness of the Indigenous culture. Different art works can tell different stories. These stories could be about the stolen generation, the hunting, the land dying, the white people settling, the death of and elder or a close relative and the journey through an elders eyes. Elders used dot paintings and other paintings such as mimi art which is an art about animals, humans and are normally stick figures have no flesh. There is also x-ray art, a traditional style of art that is shown through the fragile bone and showing the flesh inside the body. Rock art is another type of Indigenous art as it one of the most common styles (Banakeem, 2012). It is done by carving the painting or â€Å"figures† into the rock or wall. Body art is also a form of Indigenous art as â€Å"body painting is passed out within strict conventions that are primarily connected to spiritual matters†(Banakeem, 2012). This piece of art work dates back to the early 20thCenturary and we can analyse what this picture could mean by viewing the following keys; Below are the keys; Meeting place Tavel Message Communities Man Woman We are looking st these key features because in groups of 3 or 4, you are to draw a piece of indigenous art using the keys on the PowerPoint. Remeber e h symbol you ise must create a story. You are to tell a story. As you can see, the making of the art can be fun but its never an easy task. As we have supplied you with the materials, the art was gathered from clay or orches. In saying this, we can still enjoy the rich culture of our paintings, the Indigenous paintings. Dance: Dance was formed by the earliest Indigenous Australians and has been past down from many generations (Smitz, 2005). Dance is important to us now as we can look at different ways to move, tell a story and be told a story. The movements vary compared to the movements we see in ballet, jazz or hip hop. The movements aren’t necessarily the jumping around and crawling on the floor- they include their instruments as well. This gathers in the: Hollow log drum Sticks Slap sticks Skin drum These styles of movement include some of the musical instruments such as the the slap sticks, which are boomerangs being hit together, skin drums which is using your own body to make a sound, hollow log drums which are a drummed shaped and sticks which are used to hit against the body or can be used to hit against a hard object, for example, a tree or a rock (Smitz, 2005). To incorporate these instruments into the dance was to add another beat so then the â€Å"imitated bird or animals, could be shared† (Chee, 2012). It is known that â€Å"songs and dance were exchanged often at large ceremonial gatherings† (Atkinson, 2008). Often, the indigenous culture would perform to a higher standard to please the guest tribe or to please the elders or spirits (Atkinson, 2008). Throughout these dancers, the elders would come together and analyse the performance and judge this event either themselves, by a spirit or by the tribes. These tribes would be respectful in the decision and teach the â€Å"winning† tribe the dance that they had won or traded. Music: Music is an important aspect of the Indigenous culture as they use it as inspiration for a painting, the background noise for a tribal chant and for ceremonial reasons. The music that is most commonly heard is the didgeridoo. Th didgeridoo creates a sound when you use your mouth, lips, nose and cheeks. Smitz (2005) states that the didgeridoo is a musical instrument used for the conducting of ceremonies, â€Å"however,the didgeridoo is played by a man and it women at ceremonies† (Smitz, 2005). This means that at ceremonies, the didgeridoo should only be played by men and not women. However, music was to be listened, and play by men, women and children. It was used to create tribe chants, musical backgrounds for a story Music was also used by both men’s and women to create a tribe chants, musical backgrounds for elder stories and for religious purposes. The music brings an important part of the culture to a tip. The didgeridoo is the main component to completing the music for any Indigenous piece of music. When ceremonies occur, there is tradintionally one song and two piece of music because the tribes need to appreciate the elder or elders. The song is the next step bringing the tribe or tribes together through the tribes ceremonial song or chant. This is normally done towards the start of the ceremonies (Atkinson, 2008). Summarise: To summarise, art, music and danced are important aspects of the indigenous culture. The art that is created by the Indigenous Australians tells a story. These stories are about the past, present and future. Music is part.

Case Study on Cultural Differences Essay

Cultural differences can pose problems for health care workers. In the case of Linda Gorman, she is faced with the decision to report a woman for child abuse, or chalk it up to cultural differences. The question shouldn’t be whether or not she should report Mrs. Saeto, but rather, are Mrs. Saeto’s actions really considered child abuse? The answer to this can get muddled in cultural beliefs. For Americans, her actions qualify as abusive because Mrs. Saeto is unnecessarily causing harm to baby Marie by burning her. To the Mien culture, this is merely an act of protecting the child and curing her from an ailment. It really depends on what viewpoint one looks at it from. In the Mien culture, practices like this burning ritual are commonplace. The Mien culture believes in spirits and rituals that can cure ailments. To some outside of the culture, these practices may seem barbaric, but to them, some of American practices may seem barbaric as well. For example, Linda mentions the differences between burning a child and causing a child pain by giving them a shot. Both cause the baby to cry, and to both cultures, both are considered to be helping the baby stay healthy. To anyone outside of the American culture, American medical practices can potentially seem just as barbaric as burning a baby. This is directly related to cultural relativity, or â€Å"the view that practices and behaviors can be judged only by the cultural standards of the culture in which those practices occur,† (Hachen, n. d. ). According to David Hachen, â€Å"rejecting cultural relativity implies that there are universal standards by which the practices in all cultures can be evaluated,† (Hachen, n. . ). If Linda assumes that Mrs. Saeto’s beliefs are barbaric and should be reported, she is practicing ethnocentrism, or â€Å"the view that one’s own culture is the superior culture and therefore its standards are the ‘universal’ ones that should be used to judge behaviors in all cultures,† (Hachen, n. d. ). Linda needs to decide whether her practices and beliefs are superior to Mrs. Saeto’s, and therefore the standard by which to compare Mrs. Saeto’s actions. Should Linda find Mrs. Saeto’s actions unacceptable in the American culture, how should she proceed? Should she report Mrs. Saeto for child abuse, or should she confront her in the hopes to change Mrs. Saeto’s opinions concerning Mien cultural cures and medical practices? If Linda decides to confront Mrs. Saeto, she should probably explain to her that in America, most people would consider her actions abusive to baby Marie and that she should probably not continue to â€Å"cure† her in this manner. This poses another ethical dilemma. By imparting this knowledge to Mrs. Saeto, Linda is, in a sense, assimilating Mrs.  Saeto to American culture. How far is too far? If Mrs. Saeto gives up this practice, and similar ones, in order to not seem abusive to her American peers, what else will she have to give up from her culture? Linda’s best options for handling the situation are to talk to Mrs. Saeto and try to explain the dilemma to her. She should convey that she understands the cultural differences, but that if another doctor who does not understand sees the burns, it may be misconstrued as child abuse. She shouldn’t threaten Mrs.  Saeto with reporting her, but should rather allow Mrs. Saeto to see both sides of the story, as Linda is seeing them. Hopefully, this will allow Mrs. Saeto to make an educated decision in her own time, regarding the practices. Neither side is right, nor wrong, in this case, however, Mrs. Saeto must be made aware of the potential danger she could face by continuing her Mien practices in America, where the wrong person may see and not understand and make a rash decision that could harm Mrs. Saeto’s family in the long run.

One of the most acknowledged artists, Tony Cragg Essay

One of the most acknowledged artists, Tony Cragg - Essay Example The essay "One of the most acknowledged artists, Tony Cragg" discusses the Tony Cragg's career in arts and visual communication and analyzes his work, philosophy, and interactions with the wider society. Tony Cragg started his career in Britain as a laboratory assistant. His main duties in the laboratory involved testing, manipulating and developing various categories of rubber. Cragg took these duties while he was still an art student and therefore he utilized his artistic skill in all experiments that he conducted. Using his drawing techniques, he was able to express his experiment to an understandable level. His background in science is also considered to have contributed to his imagination and creativity. In 1970, Cragg joined the Wimbledon College of Art before he proceeded to the royal college in London. After completing his studies at Wimbledon, Cragg moved Wuppertal in Germany where he continued with his work in visual art. While in Germany Cragg utilized found materials such as broken glass, toys, plastics and metal pieces to produce his works. In 1980, tony Cragg began using bronze and iron as his major artistic materials. He also used other materials such as wood, polystyrene, and steel to cast bronze and iron. Due to complexities in his work, Cragg preferred producing all his sculptors using his own hands. Cragg had a team of assistants who assisted him with his daily work and requirement in his studio. His early forms took from his experiences and encounter with experimental work.

Description and Work Aspects of Amazon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Description and Work Aspects of Amazon - Essay Example Amazon.com is one of the pioneers of online shopping. Founded and operated by Jeff Bezos, this company began operations from Seattle but quickly spread to many different parts of the world including UK, Germany, Japan, Spain, Canada, Brazil, and China. This company now offers a wide range of products and has even started offering innovative services such as cloud computing (Amazon, 2013). Amazon.com works on a consumer-centric approach and it is on account of this approach that this company invests heavily in research and development and comes up with innovative products time and again. Despite the recession, Amazon.com has been able to enjoy a growth spurt of 14 percent (Stockport, 2010). Amazon was able to show a growth spurt even in a recession because of the leadership it has in the form of Jeff Bezos. He revolutionized the use of internet and the way consumers shop by introducing an online bookstore. Previously, consumers were skeptical of shopping through the internet as they feared being cheated. However, this perception was altered through revolutionary entrepreneurs such as Bezos. Now online websites are being increasingly preferred over brick and mortar shops; especially for goods such as music and books. Change is the only thing constant in the technology industry. Since Amazon is included within this industry, it faces the pressure of being obsolete. It has to continuously upgrade itself and come up with new products in order to retain its presence in the industry. Technology has also made it possible for improving the reach of the consumers. With the introduction of Android and other such phones, the online store is even more accessible to the average consumers. They can even purchase, sell or use the website on the go. The company has always focused on the needs of the consumers. Any strategy or move that the company made, it made for the good of the customers.  

Different Phases of Talent Management in National Oilwell Varco Essay

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Globalization and Training Document - Essay Example The onset of globalization has made managing supply chains complicated and critical than it was in the past years. No business area is affected more by the style to worldwide business situation within the supply chain. The need for companies like Riordan Manufacturing to use best strategies in international management of supply chain has increased because of globalization. Riordan Manufacturing is a worldwide company as it supplies its products globally. Recently, Riordan ventured into China where it discovered it had a bigger market base. As Riordan’s customers expand around the world, they expect the company to go with them. Therefore, it is important to improve their products and sell them at a cheaper price. For example, Riordan Manufacturing has a large customer base in the German plastic market, which has opening facilities in China. We have the option of continuing to supply our products to China from Germany, or find a way to interact with our customer base in China. Decisions made will ensure our customers receive quality products. To maintain the loyalty of our consumers in China, Riordan has to transfer its production expertise to China and offer those functions at a confined level (Riordan, 2014). Supply chain complexity continues to increase with globalization. The manufacturing process has become extremely complicated and is no longer a simple assembly line. Manufacturers are now forced to manage several product lines, each one assembled from parts taken from different suppliers. The same manufacturers are also needed to manage logistics, to know where and when products need to be to satisfy demand across the globe. The huge numbers of global markets where products are now being sold continues to expand drastically (Fawcett, Ellram & Ojden, 2007). With this increase in growth, there has been a rise in the number of

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Carbon footprint assigment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Carbon footprint assigment - Assignment Example At present, the outstanding challenge that is facing the human race is global warming, and its most pressing requirement is radically reducing our carbon footprint (Stuart 3) Daily driving cause’s carbon footprint in that fuel is burnt by the engine when driving thus, creating a certain amount of CO2 depending on the distance of driving and the car’s fuel consumption. For people who drive long distances daily, travel could be the largest part of their carbon footprint. The daily driving range is the most polluting thing that is done by most people. When burning gasoline, it releases pollutants that cause water pollution, global warming, and smog. The scientific press is full of dire warnings as to our collective fate if we fail to effect a very substantial reduction in carbon emission and to do so quickly (Stuart 4) In order to change this, the focus should be on saving the energy and reducing the carbon cause. First, it is vital improving fuel economy of the car. This can be achieved by reducing the energy used when overcoming resistance from road and air, braking, and accelerating. Additionally, public transport such as trains and buses should be used instead since compared to driving they are a less carbon-intensive way to travel. Moreover, people should drive less to reduce their driving footprint. Driving and cycling are also good substitutes for short driving distance that are carbon intensive. There may be no easy solution to the problem generating the carbon footprint but the parameters of the debate do not need to be established, different and all, so that we can determine what most at issue is (Stuart 18) There are various challenges that will be faced when changing the daily driving distance that causes carbon emission. We must address urgently the dilemma of ways to persuade trade-off that is possibly the best between survivals economically and ecological disaster (Stuart 21). From a

Appraisal of a capital expenditure project Essay

Appraisal of a capital expenditure project - Essay Example The three projects have different implications on the number of people needed to operate the machines, and vary in costs and capacity. Evaluating Capital Expenditures Choosing among capital expenditure projects should not rely solely on financial assessment. It is also important to undertake a subjective evaluation of each of the projects, in terms of its suitability for the macro-environment. An examination of the PEST (political, economic, social, and technological) conditions will determine which of the firms, if any, must be excluded by environmental conditions, or which would prove exceptionally suitable to these conditions. A risk assessment is another pre-requisite to determine which of the projects may pose extraordinary or undue risk for the company or the workers who shall be involved in the installation or operation of the new machinery. Incremental analysis shall be employed in this study, which requires discounting the existing financial data reflected by current operati ons, and instead rendering judgment based on the analysis of changes introduced by each project. Incremental analysis includes only the financial data that would vary in the future as a result of adopting each of the possible alternatives; all current data that are foreseen to remain unchanged are not included in the analysis (Weygandt, Kimmel & Kieso, 2010, p. 299). The accounts that appear in the next tables are the changes expected, based on estimates by the principal owners of the corporation, spouses Bill and Terry Anderson. Alternative projects Project A involves the purchase of a machine, the price and installation of which amount to 110,000 during year 0. This capital expenditure is depreciated over the life of the project, which is 8 years, and since there is no salvage value the annual increase in depreciation expense is 13,750, using the straight line depreciation method. The project mechanises some of the production functions, and as a result of adopting this Project, fe wer people will need to be hired. This results in a corresponding reduction in labour expense that gradually increases through the years as the operation becomes more efficient. Adoption of Project A does not foresee any change in revenues, cost of sales or operating expenses, other than the change in depreciation and labour expenses. The incremental accounts pertaining to Project A are shown in the next two tables. Since the increase in depreciation expense and decrease in labour expense have a cumulative effect on the net taxable income, there is a change in net income after tax after application of the 30% income tax rate. If the depreciation expense, which is a non-cash expense, is added back into the net income after tax, then the cash flow resulting from the adoption of Project A is obtained. The cash flow stream for the duration of Project A shall be used in the non-accounting capital expenditure assessment techniques Similarly, the incremental accounts for Project B are show n in the next two tables. Project B has a much smaller purchase and installation cost of 45,000 which comprises its initial investment. The resulting change in depreciation expense is an increase of 4,500 per year for the 10 years that constitute the life of Project B, using straight-line depreciation method. Project B has an assumed increase in revenues, owing to the fact that the business

Why is oil such an important resource in the region ( Middle East) Essay

Why is oil such an important resource in the region ( Middle East) - Essay Example The first step is to explore an area for the existence of oil. Once oil has been located, the commercial viability of the well, as it is commonly referred to, has to be ascertained. This depends on the quantity of oil that is available for extraction. Another factor is the quality of oil. Quality is determined by the percentage of sulphur and asphalt found in oil. On the basis of this content, oil is classified into three types. The best quality is known as light crude. This type of oil will be a golden brown in colour it will flow more easily and has low sulphur and asphalt content. Heavy crude, on the other hand will be thicker and dark in colour and its sulphur and asphalt content will be high. The third category, known as medium crude, has characteristics that fall between light and heavy crude. So the best quality oil is light crude, followed by medium, with heavy crude having the poorest quality. â€Å"Crude oil is a mixture of many substances, mainly compounds of carbon and h ydrogen, together with varying proportions of sulphur.† 1 The awareness of oil and its use has been in vogue even 2000 years ago. Its uses were limited mainly to cooking and lighting since technology was primitive in those days. Since drilling methods were not in existence at that time, only that oil which naturally came up to the surface due to pressure could be used. Commercial drilling using crude techniques started in the United States about 200 years ago. The pressure of oil was such that the pioneers in this field often found it difficult to stop the oil gushing out form the wells. But as time passed and modern drilling methods came into to being, exploration has become more efficient and less wasteful. From the beginning of the 20th century, oil was explored and extracted from many regions of the worlds. A majority of the oil companies operating were privately owned. These companies were able to

Alexander Hamilton Essay Example for Free

Alexander Hamilton Essay There are four reasons why Alexander Hamilton argued in favor of the development of manufacturing. His first reason was that manufacturing would help the economy. The economy would grow financially and manufacturing would cause more trade. His second reason was that manufacturing would bring down tariffs, which would cause more trade and jobs. His third reason was that manufacturing would bring more immigration to the â€Å"Young America†. With the new population it will expand America and open more areas for trade. His last reason was employment. Having manufacturing would create more jobs through farming and factories. Alexander Hamilton’s way of helping the United States Government was very wise. Hamilton reasoned that helping the Government would secure American independence. He thought that the United States needed to have a sound policy of encouraging the growth of manufacturing and at the same time he wanted to make sure that the United States’ future was still strong. He argued for the development of manufacturing because he believed that he could achieve the subsidies of the economy by giving away tariffs. He thought that if the United States government gave high tariffs then no one would want to trade with the United States. He also believed that his polices would not only help trade but help other weaknesses of the economy such as employment and immigration. These policies would not only promote the growth of manufacturing but provide diversified employment opportunities and promote immigration into the â€Å"Young America†. They would also expand the applications of technology and science for all quarters of the economy, including agriculture. The Industrial Revolution was the most important development during the 19th century. It brought many changes towards American Life. A new class of industrial engineers organized the land, labor, mineral resources, and capital of the nation, to maximize both the production and profit. There were many new inventions in, transportation and communication, and in the use of the assembly-line techniques that made the growth of huge, nationally based industries with enormous financial and political influence. A group of small independent farmers, craft workers, and merchants became one big business for industrial centers. Immigrants and farmers alike poured into large industrial centers to compete for jobs.

Characteristics Of Victorian Age Literature

Characteristics Of Victorian Age Literature Historical Background of Victorian Age In the year 1837, Queen Victoria ascended the throne of Great Britain and Ireland and succeeded William the IV. She served for a period of 64 years, till her death in 1901 and it is one of the longest reigns in the history of England. The period was marked by many important social and historical changes that altered the nation in many ways. The population nearly doubled, the British Empire expanded exponentially and technological and industrial progress helped Britain become the most powerful country in the world. Chief Characteristics of Victorian Period While the country saw economic progress, poverty and exploitation were also equally a part of it. The gap between the rich and the poor increased significantly and the drive for material and commercial success was seen to propagate a kind of a moral decay in the society itself. The changing landscape of the country was another concern. While the earlier phase of Romanticism saw a celebration of the country side and the rich landscape of the flora and fauna, the Victorian era saw a changing of the landscape to one of burgeoning industries and factories. While the poor were exploited for their labor, the period witnessed the rise of the bourgeoisie or the middle class due to increasing trade between Britain and its colonies and the Reform Bill of 1832 strengthen their hold. There was also a shift from the Romantic ideals of the previous age towards a more realistic acceptance and depiction of society. One of the most important factors that defined the age was its stress on morality. Strict societal codes were enforced and certain activities were openly looked down upon. These codes were even harsher for women. A feminine code of conduct was levied on them which described every aspect of their being from the proper apparels to how to converse, everything had rules. The role of women was mostly that of being angels of the house and restricted to domestic confines. Professionally very few options were available to them as a woman could either become a governess or a teacher in rich households. Hence they were financially dependent on their husbands and fathers and it led to a commercialization of the institution of marriage. Victorian Novels Victorian Era is seen as the link between Romanticism of the 18th century and the realism of the 20th century. The novel as a genre rose to entertain the rising middle class and to depict the contemporary life in a changing society. Although the novel had been in development since the 18th century with the works of Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, Laurence Sterne, Samuel Richardson and the others, it was in this period that the novel got mass acceptance and readership. The growth of cities, a ready domestic market and one in the oversea colonies and an increase in printing and publishing houses facilitated the growth of the novel as a form. In the year 1870, an Education Act was passed which made education an easy access to the masses furthermore increasing literacy rates among the population. Certain jobs required a certain level of reading ability and simple novels catered to this by becoming a device to practice reading. Also the time of the daily commute to work for men and the time alone at home for women could be filled by reading which now became a leisure activity. As a response to the latter, the demand for fiction, rose substantially. The novels of the age mostly had a moral strain in them with a belief in the innate goodness of human nature. The characters were well rounded and the protagonist usually belonged to a middle class society who struggled to create a niche for himself in the industrial and mercantile world. The stress was on realism and an attempt to describe the daily struggles of ordinary men that the middle class reader could associate with. The moral tangents were perhaps an attempt to rescue the moral degradation prevalent in the society then and supplied the audience with hope and positivity. These moral angles allowed for inclusion of larger debates in fiction like the ones surrounding the woman question, marriage, progress, education, the Industrial Revolution. New roles for women were created because of the resultant economic market and their voice which was earlier not given cadence was now being spotted and recognized and novels became the means where the domestic confinement of women was qu estioned. Novels reflecting the larger questions surrounding women, like those of their roles and duties. In the latter half of the century, Married Womens Property Acts was passed, the women suffrage became an important point of debate, and poverty and other economic reasons challenged the traditional roles of women. The novel as a form became the medium where such concerns were raised. Charles Dickens: A Popular Victorian Author In the same year that Queen Victoria ascended the throne, Charles Dickens published the first parts of his novel Oliver Twist, a story of an orphan and his struggle with poverty in the early part of the century. As the Industrial Revolution surged on, the class difference between the traditional aristocracy and the middle class was gradually getting reduced and with the passing of the Reform Act, the middle class got the right to vote and be politically engaged in the affairs of the nation. While the aristocracy criticized the work that the bourgeoisie had to do in the factories and the industries, to maintain the supremacy that they had the privilege of, the middle class in response promoted work as virtue. The result of this led to a further marginalization of those struck by poverty and were part of neither groups. The Poor Law that was passed made public assistance available to the economically downtrodden only through workhouses where they had to live and work. The conditions of these workhouses were deliberately made to be unbearable so as to avoid the poor from becoming totally dependent on assistance from outside. Families were split, food was inedible, and the circumstances were made inhospitable to urge the poor to work and fight a way through poverty. However, these ultimately became a web difficult to transgress and people chose living in the streets rather than seeking help from a workhouse. Dickens was aware of these concerns as a journalist and his own life and autobiographical experiences entered the novel through Oliver Twist. His novel enters the world of the workhouses, the dens of thieves and the streets and highlights that while there was economic prosperity on one side, there was poverty on the other and while morality, virtue were championed, hypocrisy was equally a part of society. His social commentary entered the world of his fiction. In 1836, before Oliver Twist, his serials of Pickwick Papers were published which led him to instant recognition and popularity. It started the famous Victorian mode of serial novels which dominated the age till the end of the century. It not only made the reader anxious for the next serial to come and spread the popularity of the book itself, but also gave the writer a chance to alter his work according to the mood and expectation of his audience. His works enjoyed continuous popularity and acceptance and Dickens as a writer became famous for his wit, satire, social commentary and his in depth characters. Bleak House, A Christmas Carroll, David Copperfield, Great Expectations are some of his other great works. William Makepeace Thackeray: English Victorian Writer Thackeray was born in Calcutta, India and was also an important writer but one who expressed his age very differently from Dickens and other writers. He is most noted for his satirical work Vanity Fair that portrays the many myriads of English society. Although he was seen as equally talented as Dickens, but his views were deemed old-fashioned which hindered his popularity. He did not readily accept the changing values of the age. His work is seen almost as a reactionary voice. Vanity Fair for example has the subtitle A novel without a Hero and in a period where other writers usually embarked on a portrayal of the coming of age of a hero, Thackeray himself very deliberately opposes it. While the protagonist of Dickens David Copperfield invites the reader to identify with him, Thackerays Becky Sharp is the conniving, cynical and clever. Even his novel Pendennis, is a complete opposite of the novel David Copperfield, although both were published the same year. Thackeray did not identif y with the middle class because hence his novels lack a middle class hero. When novels were catering to reassure middle class self-worth, Thackeray denied to give that assurance. Even, Dobbin, a middle class character in Vanity Fair, is not completely granted hero status and a tone of criticism lingers on the character throughout the work. In The History of Henry Esmond, Thackeray deals with questions of not only of the concerns of society at large but also of individual identity. While most writers supported the idea of innate goodness in the individual human self, Thackeray differed. For example the character of Henry Esmond is also not a completely positive character and the negatives of his self, is perhaps Thackerays critique of Victorian emphasis on the individual. An individualism that focused on personal virtue and morality is seen as Thackeray to at the risk of selfishness bordering on narcissism and self-absorption. His discontent with his age became more vocal in later works like Phillip and The New Comes. While the former is injected with autobiographical accounts and is goes back to the satirical tone of Vanity Fair, the latter is a harsh critique of the material greed of the age and a critique of the contemporary culture of the age. As a result of his strong opinions of his society and its issues, and a critical rejection of the dominant concerns found in works of other writers of the same age, Thackeray stands in isolation as an outsider to this circle due his skepticism of the changing Victorian society. His stand did not change with time and lends to a social criticism and commentary of a very different sort in his works. Catherine, A Shabby Genteel Story, The Book of Snobs are some of his other works. Women Novelists of the Victorian Era The era saw a proliferation of women writers. The novel as a genre was initially seen as feminine literature and as the literacy rate among women increased, a new need for women writers catering to this segment was answered by these writers. Mrs. Gaskell Elizabeth Gaskell, popularly called Mrs. Gaskell wrote short stories and novels that dealt with presenting a social picture of her society in the 1850s. While it was a time when doubts about material progress reaching the actual lives of the ordinary man were starting to be raised, Gaskell mostly gave an optimistic view of the time. Gaskells North and South for example, seeks to present an answer to division and difference by presenting a form of a social reconciliation. There is an attempt at reconciliation of many divergent streams in the novel. Mary Barton was her first novel, published in 1848 with a subtitle, A Tale of Manchester Life and sticks to the Victorian concern of presenting the daily life of the middle class. Cranford came next in the form of a serial and was edited by Dickens for the magazine called Household Words. It was received positively and Gaskell gained immediate popularity for it. It centered on women characters like Mary Smith, Miss Deborah and the others. However the book was also critiqued for its lack of a significant story line. She was also famous for her gothic style in some of her works and this made Gaskell slightly different from other novelist of her time. Ruth, Sylvias Lovers, Wives and Daughters were other significant works by her. George Eliot Perhaps the one most famous women writers, George Eliot still maintains a canonical status. Her real name was Mary Ann Evans or Marian Evans and she adopted the pseudonym George Eliot to escape the stereotype attached with women writers and successfully entered the domain of serious writing. She had a controversial personal life and there too was not hesitant to break the norms of societal feminine boundaries. Adam Bede was her first novel, published 1859, set in a rural landscape and deals with a love rectangle. It received critical appreciation for its psychological descriptions of the characters and a realistic description of rural life. Mill on the Floss, 1860, revolves around the life of Tom and Maggie Tulliver and traces their life as they grow up near the River Floss. Historical, political references to those of the Napoleonic Wars and the Reform Bill of 1832 inform the novel and lend it a more intellectual and serious strain. Autobiographical elements also form a part of the novel as George Eliot fuses herself partly with Maggie, the protagonist of the book. After Silas Marner (1861), Romola (1863), Felix Holt the Radical, (1866) came Eliots most popular novel Middlemarch in the year 1871. The novel revolves around the life of complex characters and the Reform Bill of 1832. Subtitled A Study of Provincial Life the plot is based in the fictitious town of Midlands. The greatness of the novel was because of the vast portraiture of country and urban life that it depicts, its complex plots and characters, and its stark realistic projection of the time its set in. The role of education, the women question, politics, s ocial commentary, idealism are other complicated strands of the novel. Bronte Sisters Charlotte, Emily and Anne Bronte were the three famous novelist daughters of Patrick Bronte, a well-educated man and a writer himself; and Maria Bronte. The family together went through a series of tragedies where Maria Bronte died very early and none of the three sisters could reach the age of 40. Charlotte died at the age of just 39, Emily at 30 and Anne at 29. All three were educated by their father at home and all of them were fond of storytelling since childhood. Charlotte Bronte is famous for her novel Jane Eyre, published in 1847. The titular protagonist of the book, Jane Eyre, and her struggles in life and love for Mr. Rochester along with the process of her mental and spiritual growth are traced. The novel is believed to have a feminist tone to it and the famous woman in the attic character of Bertha Mason raises several gender and feminist issues. Emily Bronte, the second of the trio, became famous for her novel Wuthering Heights, published in the year 1847 and the only boo k written by her. Like George Eliot, Emily wrote under the pseudonym of Ellis Bell but after her death Charlotte published the novel with her sisters real name. The novel is the love story of Heathcliff and  Catherine Earnshaw. Anne Bronte, the last of the three, wrote two novels: Agnes Grey  (1847) and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall  (1848). The former was an autobiographical work and the latter is about a woman named   Helen Graham who transgresses marital and social boundaries to assert her freedom. It is seen a substantial piece of feminist writing. All three sisters hence larger societal questions through mostly women characters and the plot focusses on their life with themes of love and passion. They hence enjoyed a large female readership and have achieved status as classics of literature. Late Victorian Novelists Thomas Hardy was the most important writer in the later part of the Victorian Era. He was influenced by both the romanticism of the earlier era and the social commentary of Dickens. He is famous for the conception of the fictional town of Wessex. Far from the Madding Crowd  published in 1874,  The Mayor of Casterbridge  in 1886,  Tess of the dUrbervilles  in 1891, and  Jude the Obscure  in 1895 are his famous novels but Hardy was also known for his poetry. The late part of the period also saw the rise of the sensational novels by writers like Wilkie Collins and they too were based on the life of the middle class. The Woman in White (1860) and The Moonstone (1868) are Collins famous sensational novels. Anthony Trollope, another writer in the second half of the era, was himself from a middle class background and wrote the Phineas Finn (1869) and The Way we Live (1874). It was the time when Lewis Carroll wrote his famous Alices Adventures in Wonderland published in 1865 an d stood very different from other because of the child fiction genre it became a classic of the Carrolls different dreamy world that stood in direct contrast with the realistic tone of novels that was at its peak. George Gissing, George Moore, Samuel Butler, Henry James, Robert Louis Stevenson were other novels of the era. Rudyard Kipling and his short stories based in India pointed to the larger historical process of colonialism happening at the time. It was in 1877 that Queen Victoria became the Empress of India. Then also came George Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde, another two most famous writers of the time. Overview of Victorian Period The age hence was important for the rise of the novel as a genre and form which itself saw transformation within the period. From romanticism to realism, politics to passion, optimism to pessimism, the novel could successfully deal with the changing mood of the society. Class, gender, individualism, society all were given space in the novel. The period was known to have witnessed the massive change of Britain from an agrarian to industrial landscape. All concerns informed the novel and the novel was made into perhaps the most important genre of the age and the ones that would follow. Modern Period After Queen Victorias death in 1901 came the period which saw writers like Joseph Conrad, H.G Wells, D.H Lawrence, E.M Forster and others. The most important event in the early part of the 20th century was the First World War that took place from 1914 to 1918. It was a crucial event that changed the way of the world, impacted the psyche of the people and also the way literature was written. The pessimism and doubts that were a part of the writings of the earlier period may perhaps have anticipated the War. Hence Joseph Conrad, instead of talking of the society and its change now focused on dislocated individuals, a question of where one belongs in a seemingly cruel world. Colonialism are important part of his works wherein he presents a stark reality of exploitation and greed. Lord Jim, Nostromo, Heart of Darkness, are some of his major works. H.G Wells was a prolific writer and wrote around a hundred novels. The Time Machine, Ann Veronica, The History of Mr. Polly, The War of the Wo rlds, are some his important novels and Tono- Bungay is seen as his most brilliant work. Lawrence, was a controversial writer because of the open sexual references in his work. His work was different because of the sensual language and emotional feelings that made them. Therefore the novel then moved from the realism of the world outside more towards a description of the reality of the individual within. Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow, Women in Love are important works by him. E.M Forster, lastly wrote his famous Howards End that deals with the Schegel and the Wilcox family and the society in 1910, brilliantly and delicately described which would then be transformed permanently by the First World War. The Georgian Poets and World War I During the reign of George V, was published five anthologies of poetry by Edward Marsh in the year 1912 to 1922. Many important writers like of the time like Edward Thomas, Robert Graves, D.H Lawrence, Walter de la Mare contributed to these anthologies. The main concern was to depict the real issues surrounding the world around the World War. Modernism Modernism as a movement was a response to the horrors of World War-I and to the rising industrial societies and growth of cities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It challenged the harmony and the rationality of the Enlightenment and sought to reinvent art and literature of the age. To do so, it broke away from the works of the past and conventions that were earlier held at a pedestal. The view that traditional conceptions of beauty and on the whole the meaning of art itself did not fit the age lead to another movement called Dadaism that consciously set to redefine art itself. The movement was seen as anti-art that aimed to upturn its order. Chaos then as the basic antithesis to order was abundantly used by artists. Started by Tristan Tzara (1896- 1963) as a reaction against the senseless violence of the First World War and to reflect the anarchy that it spread in the social system as well as in the lives of ordinary people. What was also opposed was the conception of what was worthy of being the object of art. The classical subjects were replaced by the mundane as the urinal that Marcel Duchamp placed as an object of art in his gallery. Also in his LHOOQ Duchamps Mona Lisa with a moustache was a direct means to shake the viewer and the age out from his complacency that lead to the war itself. It was the direct expression of disillusionment with the war and that art too had lost its meaning like the literature of the classical time. The breaking down of any previously set rules and a violent portrayal of freedom of expression to shock and awe was the channel of the time that saw the violence of the World War firsthand. The artists and writers of the Dada movement were mostly war veterans and expressed through their work the psychological devastation of the war. The call for re-invention was echoed in the movement and stood for what modernism broadly aimed at. Thematic and Technical Features of Modern Literature The conception that reality could be easily be comprehended was replaced by modernism with a more subjective argument. Reality became not what was directly seen but what was behind the apparent surfaces and it took a crude look at the ugly, the stark behind the glossy surfaces. It was to raise these questions that distortion became a crucial trope in the visual arts of the era. Comtes Positivism could no longer be used to describe reality. The distorted images force the onlooker to step out of his comfort zone and to question his conception of reality. It highlights the dialectical relationship between the object of expression and the language that expresses it. This was echoed in the Literature of the time where sentences are fragmented and deliberately left incomplete as in Waiting for Godot. Dialogues are seldom completed and there is an inability to find the correct words to describe the state of the self. This breakdown of language after the World War calls out for a need to rei nvent language to fit the post war world. Hitlers use of almost an enigmatic, opera type use of words (he admired Wagner) that achieved his mass appeal, did also lead to the war. It was perhaps then necessary to breakdown language to reinvent it. The distortion and the fragments not only hint at the former but to a unity that needs to be rediscovered. The half-sentence make the reader seek to complete them and participate in the call for a search of a new unity and identity which is Pounds injunction to Make it New. The onlooker/reader is removed from his role as a mere passive observer to an active one who contributes to the meaning of the art he views/reads. Hence the incompleteness was not aimed at a completely pessimistic answer that leads to a loss of hope, but to different source of comfort similar to what T.S Eliot finds in the world of shanti shanti shanti at the end of Wasteland. Overview of Modern Age Literature James Joyce set his novels and short stories in a small city of Dublin. Dubliners published in 1914 is a part of the modernist literature along with The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses. Stephen Daedalus is a central character both in the Portrait and Ulysses. The latter however was banned. The next important writer was Virginia Woolf who was associated with the Bloomsbury Group which was a group of intellectuals and writers that met at her house which included E.M Forster and Leopold Woolf. Woolf attempted to present the changed world through a changed style of writing. In 1915 came her first novel called The Voyage Out and then came Night and Day in 1919. There was a realistic serious tone to both these books. Modernist strain in her writing began with her next novel call Jacobs Room which was published in 1922 along with Ulysses. The rest of the novels like Mrs. Dalloway, To the Lighthouse, The Waves, and Orlando had the same modernist tone. Stream of Consciousness Picassos cubism became an important part of modernisms subjective view of reality and a need to move away from traditional forms of art. It was this subjectivity that lead to the stream of consciousness technique of narration, as used by Virginia Woolf in Mrs. Dalloway. The focus on the interiority of the self and its perception of the objects it conceives was way to grasp the changed notion of reality. The Pre-Speech level of consciousness (as Henry James called it) of the character where the narrative deals with what is freely sensed or felt by the characters rather than what is directly uttered changed the way that narratives functioned. The expression of the self was also to highlight the crisis of the self within itself. The existential view of life and its cyclical futile form was what entrapped it rendering it unable to transcend futility of existence. This pessimistic view was a residue of the war which saw man as Sisyphus with his worthless search for meaning, identity and u nity in an age that cannot satiate his search. In The Myth of Sisyphus Albert Camus dwells on this futility of the modern experience. Poetic Drama The term poetic drama was made popular during the middle of the 20th century. The term was made famous due to the works of T.S Eliot who used his work as a reaction to the drama of G. B Shaw and Galsworthy who were immensely influenced by Henrik Ibsen who wrote A Dolls House and Ghosts. In the The Quintessence of Ibsenism written by G.B Shaw, he accepted the formers influence on him. T.S Eliot apart from being a poet was also a critic and wrote many important works like Possibility of Poetic Drama and Poetry and Drama in which he expressed his belief that poetry and drama are linked inseparably. W.B. Yeats, W. H. Auden and other poets also tried writing poetic drama. IMPORTANT LITERARY TERMS Dramatic Monologue A persona poem or what is popularly termed as a dramatic monologue in poetry, uses the theatrical device of a monologue where a character or person on stage speaks alone. Often done to highlight the character or authors internal thoughts and vocalize them to an implied audience, it was used in poetry in the 20th century. Romantic poetry was seen as the root of the same. It is usually one persons speech to oneself or the audience / reader wherein he talks about a subjective view on a situation, topic, or any other character. Robert Browning was the poet who perfected the use of dramatic monologue in his poems like My Last Duchess, Soliloquy of the Spanish Cloister. His use of the device influenced Eliot and other modernist writers. Paradox As the term signifies, a paradox occurs when there is self-contradiction in a sentence. Even ideas can have a paradox in them. It is done often for stylistic reasons and to express a complicated thought or feeling. Hamlets line I must be cruel only to be kind. (Act 3, Scene iv line 178) in Shakespeares play with the same title is an example of paradox where two contradictory emotions of kindness and cruelty are brought together. Antithesis It basically denotes the coming together of complete opposites in a sentence. It is a rhetorical device often used by orators. For example, Goethes quote Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing is an example of the same. Symbol Derived from the greek word Symbolom, a symbol is a word or object that stands for another word or object. For example a fox is a symbol for cleverness and dove is the universal symbol for peace. Problem Play Used mostly with reference to drama, a problem play usually deals with an attempt to focus the public opinion about a social concern. It engages therefore with a problem in the most feasible manner and may either seek to solve it or complicate it further. It was made famous by Henrik Ibsen, a Norwegian Playwright and even used by G.B Shaw in his plays. Essay Usually a piece of prose writing that is aimed at being a thoughtful piece of writing with strong intellectual debates and undertones. It is derived from the word exagium that in Latin means a trial by weight. The form is believed to have emerged in the Renaissance and Francis Bacon in 1597 published his Essays. Novel A novel is a piece of literature that can be fictional or real and is written in prose. It is very different from drama and poetry by the extent of its length. There are many sub genres that can be a part of the novel itself. In fact a single novel is often is result of play of these various strands of literature. The root of the word Novel or Novella signifies something new as it was a later conception in the history of literature. It came after poetry and drama. It was the 18th and the 19th century that form became a major literary field with writers like Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe; Fielding, who wrote Tom Jones and Samuel Richardson, Charles Dickens and others. After the romantic phase there was a revival of the gothic fiction in works like Ann Radcliffs Mysteries of Udolfo and Mary Shelleys Frankenstein. Gothic was one such genre of the novel form. Realist novels, Sensational novels, domestic novels are just some of the others. On the whole the novel can be seen as a fictional narrative in prose, generally longer than a short story. Unlike the epic, which is now seen as a dead genre, the novel is still enjoying its high status in the literary market as perhaps, it has evolved with the continuously evolving world. Free Verse Free verse is a type of structure which does not have a fixed meter or regular rhythm. Even the line length varies from one sentence to another. The cadence is dependent solely on the wish of the writer but sometimes alternates between stressed and unstressed syllables. It was derived from the word freo a middle-english word that meant free. Many great writers and poets experimented with the free verse style including Milton in his Samson Agonistes. Short Story   A short story is also a form of fiction writing but is different from the novel because of the length due to which it gets its name. It can be a highly serious work of literature, a didactic one with a moral, a part of childrens fiction and is also open to experimentation. For example, Rudyard Kipling wrote many short stories. The word short comes from the word sceort which means the same. Defoe also wrote short stories because of the popularity of serial novels at his time. It is however Edgar Allen Poe, who is considered to be a seminal figure responsible for the popularity of short stories as a genre. Joyce wrote them in his work titled Dubliners and Kafka wrote Metamorphosis using the same. FEATURES AND FORMS OF DRAMA Drama is one of the oldest forms of literature along with the epic. It is believed to have derived from the ancient Greek and Roman works. Plot A plot is the main trajectory of drama and called be called as its story line. In Poetics, while defining all the major parts of a drama, Aristotle believed that the plot was of prime importance. It was so because it the plot that could be success at achieving a catharsis in the audience which is the purging of the feelings of fear and pity. It was catharsis that Aristotle believed was the main aim of drama and a good plot was one that could successful

A Review Of The Fm Radio

A Review Of The Fm Radio FM has proved itself to be the most innovative and extremely popular medium across the world. This medium enjoys a unique history. It has evolved like any other regular medium but proved itself when other media failed to do so. INVENTOR: It was Major Edwin Armstrong, who is the original inventor of the Frequency Modulation (FM) radio broadcasting system. Major Edwin is not only the inventor on FM but has also contributed greatly many enchantments to the Amplitude Modulation. Since the inventor was one of the developers of AM so he always knew what the AM lacked and its problems. Keeping his experience in his hand, Major Edwin devised a new type of radio transmission that eliminated these problems. He named the new type Frequency Modulation later on popularised as FM. The inventor had to face problems in launching hi FM. He took his idea to his friend who was the head of Radio Corporation of America (RCA). Major Edwin noticed the professional jealousy in the head of RCA so therefore sold the manufacturing rights to several other radio manufacturing companies. This resulted in Armstrong being plagued by RCAs determination to undermine his invention. The legal battle started between RCA and Armstrong and as a result of it the inventor jumped from his 30th floor apartment, ending his life. Working of FM: According to record of Westinghouse and KDKA On December 26, 1933, Edwin Howard Armstrong was issued five basic patents on his FM system. At the same time, it is important to remember that many stations in the VHF band were still amplitude modulated. Actual official FM operations began in 1940/41. Major Armstrong (U.S. Signal Corps, WWI) conducted the first regular transmissions of the FM techniques used today beginning in 1935 on a frequency of 42.1 MHz from a transmitter loaned him by RCA atop the Empire State Building in New York. On April 10, 1938, Armstrong began the experimental station W2XMN on 43.7 MHz at 600 Watts. Full Power of 35,000 Watts and regular programming was report begun on July 18, 1939. The station lasted until 1954. Several more stations began regular program service in 1940 as GE and other manufacturers started making quantities of FM receivers. All were still considered experimental and were operated without commercial content. According to online process there are two ways in which FM stations work. Either they are Digital or Ana-log. In Ana-log FM, the frequency of the AC signal wave, also called the carrier, varies in a continuous manner. Thus, there are infinitely many possible carrier frequencies. In narrowband FM, commonly used in two-way wireless communications, the instantaneous carrier frequency varies by up to 5 kilohertz (kHz, where 1 kHz = 1000 hertz or alternating cycles per second) above and below the frequency of the carrier with no modulation. In wideband FM, used in wireless broadcasting, the instantaneous frequency varies by up to several megahertz (MHz, where 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz). When the instantaneous input wave has positive polarity, the carrier frequency shifts in one direction; when the instantaneous input wave has negative polarity, the carrier frequency shifts in the opposite direction. At every instant in time, the extent of carrier-frequency shift (the deviation) is directly proportional to the extent to which the signal amplitude is positive or negative. In digital FM, the carrier frequency shifts abruptly, rather than varying continuously. The number of possible carrier frequency states is usually a power of 2. If there are only two possible frequency states, the mode is called frequency-shift keying (FSK). In more complex modes, there can be four, eight, or more different frequency states. Each specific carrier frequency represents a specific digital input data state. Frequency modulation is similar in practice to phase modulation (PM). When the instantaneous frequency of a carrier is varied, the instantaneous phase changes as well. The converse also holds: When the instantaneous phase is varied, the instantaneous frequency changes. But FM and PM are not exactly equivalent, especially in analog applications. When an FM receiver is used to demodulate a PM signal, or when an FM signal is intercepted by a receiver designed for PM, the audio is distorted. This is because the relationship between frequency and phase variations is not linear; that is, frequency and phase do not vary in direct proportion. Federal Communication Commission (FCC): The FCC permitted regular commercial operation of FM stations in 1941, and the first commercial FM station, W47NV (now WSM-FM) in Nashville, signed on during New Years Day of 1941. The first Non-Commercial FM station was KALW, San Francisco. Owned by the SF Unified School District, this station was licensed in March of 1941, and apparently signed on officially sometime between then and September. (This station was equipped with a converted RCA unit, given to the District, after 1939-40 Golden Gate International Exposition. Armstrong also operated a subcarrier on that transmitter and demonstrated transmission of facsimile, to show that newspapers might also be delivered by radio broadcast stations. His facsimile demonstrations were carried on later by a number of FM stations, most notably those of the Cox broadcast and newspaper group, including WIOD-FM in Miami. Difference between AM and FM: AM radio stations broadcast at much lower frequency when compared with FM. According to Porter (2010) Commercial AM stations broadcast at 550 kilohertz to 1600 kilohertz, while FM stations broadcast at 88 megahertz to 108 megahertz. The prefix kilo stands for thousand, and the prefix mega stands for million. She further says that the radio waves travelling in the air remain more vulnerable to amplitude changes rather than frequency. AM and FM are different in their working. They transmit in different ways. AM transmits through power and the ionosphere interferences with these radio waves while FM is though high antennas in the air to broaden the range of broadcast. FM Media in Pakistan: Naz (2008) writes that Pakistan Broadcast Corporation (PBC) took the first step in setting up an FM station back in 1994 as FM Gold. PBC has used its own studios and staff for FM Gold. The initial transmission was limited to the big cities only. The transmission slots were from 7:00 AM till 1:00 PM as experimental. In 1996 PBC started FM 101 as an independent FM channel. Fm 100 is considered the pioneer FM station, established in 1994 and started its transmission on March 23 1995 according to their webpage history. After an immense response to FM 100 in listenership and commercialization and technological boom, the debate of privatization hit the Pakistan Media field. Soon afterward Musharraf liberated the Media and so new and private channels entered the media entrepreneurship. This proved to be a very positive step for FM stations development. Radio has been an integral part of any nations communication. It has the power to make or break the society when it comes to the impact of radio. The radio in Pakistan has also seen downfalls in history and at times it has also seen upsurges. The nation when had only one media of communication, radio, the nation utilized the media vastly and vitally. Radio Pakistan has witness its glory days when whole families use to sit around it for news or infotainment. With advent of TV radios usage graph dropped little down. But the usage of TV was limited to cities only. Even today at many far flung areas in Pakistan, TV is not the media in use but still its radio. Introduction of FM in the country was the revival of radio medium in the country. The broadcast quality of FM is vastly superior to that of AM. The FM stations in Pakistan can be categorized in three: Affiliated channels The affiliated broadcasters are the legal broadcasts that come under PEMRA in Pakistan. These channels are properly licensed and they operate under the laws of Pakistan. These are geographically registered. Right winged FM broadcast There are FM channels that are designed for the right winged society keeping in view the fact that religion is the base to everything in our society. Currently Pakistan does not have such channel operating. Sustained Illegal FM broadcasters These are un-authorized channels that have been used by many non-state elements. The biggest example of this category is the illegal FM stations in Swat and FATA. This type or category is mostly used by negative elements in a society or revolutionist. For many areas in NWFP and FATA, since there were number of illegal stations working, therefore, government has introduced alternative radio stations controlled by government itself. Mostly these alternative radio stations are available in the urban centres along with international radio stations like BBC and VOA. Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA): To regulate the public and private media Musharraf made a regulatory body Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (PEMRA). PEMRA according to their official website has been established under PEMRA Ordinance 2002 to facilitate and regulate the private electronic media. It has mandate to improve the standards of information, education and entertainment and to enlarge the choice available to the people of Pakistan Including news, current affairs, religious knowledge, art and culture as well as science and technology. According to Wikipedia (2010), Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority (formerly named RAMBO Regulatory Authority for Media and Broadcast Organizations) was formed to gradually liberate the broadcasting sector in Pakistan. PEMRA has issued a number of licenses to Cable TV operations, FM Radio stations and Satellite TV Channels. PEMRA and FM: FM radio broadcasting is used for the high quality sound. The band according to PEMRA is 880109 MHz. The area of coverage is 40-50kms. The main clauses of PEMRA dealing FM stations are 13. Media ownership concentration and exclusion of monopolies. To ensure that fair competition is facilitated, media diversity and plurality are promoted in the society and undue concentration of media ownership is not created. Maximum number of licences that may be issued to a person or any of its directors or partners where such person is a company or firm, who is directly or indirectly, controlling, owning or operating more than one media enterprise, shall not exceed a total of four satellite TV, four FM Radio licences and two landing rights permissions. Area of operation- A licensee to whom a licence has been issued for a particular area shall not extend or shift its operations beyond the territorial limits of that area without prior permission of the Authority and up-gradation of its existing licence or issuance of a new licence shall also be subject to permission in writing by the Authority: Provided that an FM radio licensee shall not be allowed to shift its station from the city for which it has been licensed. The body has a set code of conduct about the content. The code of conduct is same for both the audio and audio visual media. It is a 2 page code of conduct which includes the basic ethical restrictions. FM today: Like the rest of the world, Pakistan also saw the boom in the radio industry and so after allowing from government to set up private radio stations, more than 200 FM stations have been licensed. Presently there are number of FM stations working in big and small cities. MA Research Foundation (2009) writes that majority of the current radio stations are entertainment focused while some also broadcast news. The FM station is an active media and an important source of contacting with people. Local FM stations can be very helpful for communicating with people at a local level plus it could narrow down the gap between administration and public. Initially the FM media lacked trained people. Since there were not many trained radio workers. But then in the following years many universities offered degrees in media which to some extent met the deficiency of trained people. Still the media is said to be growing and at initial stage of learning since trained people are not substitutes of experienced ones. Problems and Solutions of FM Stations: The biggest and foremost problem that FM stations face is in the selection of broadcasters. FM broadcasters are commonly known as RJs i.e. radio jockeys or MJs i.e. Music Jockeys. Since the media lacks experienced people therefore selection and hiring has been an issue in the industry. In case of an RJ, only the quality of voice has been considered benchmark. As far as the criteria of selection is considered, command over language, pronunciation, general knowledge in social political and ethical issues must be stressed. An RJ must not be just put in front of the mike without his/her training in various fields. He/she should first be trained according to the policy of the parent company. Before sitting in front of the mike the RJ should at least have knowledge about the psychology of people of the broadcast area or the target audience. These days the FM is only a revenue generation firm. Revenue at any cost not only damages the standard of the station but also the reputation plus it is contrary to the ethical values practiced in Pakistan. To attract more listenership and through huge listenership attracting more and more advertisers has been an issue. Since all radio stations except few follow this policy therefore the FM media faces monotone in its programming. For this reason mostly the programs are entertainment based and musical. FM in Pakistani Society: The FM media has the ability to mobilize the society and depart information to the society. Therefore it could be an important tool for the societal development. The FM stations are the best way to involve people in the society development projects. For this purpose more and more community radios should be set up. Setting up community radios might be risky because if not set properly. These can be used for negative propagandas. Properly set means to be like a proper radio station registered with PEMRA and under the law of the country. Radio and specially FM stations that are now even available in mobiles as well are a cheap source of entertainment, education and information. Especially in big cities where one has access to number of different radio stations. This is not only a cheap media in terms of price but also a portal media which was easy to carry with you. A common use of the FM is seen during any other work since it is a cold media. It can be listened while doing some other routine work. People enjoy listening to it while driving, ploughing in villages, and workers in factories or shops. FM in Pakistan gained more popularity in electricity crisis. When people have no access to any media, FM stations proved to be the only source of information. The role of the media is also to unite people in case of any insurgency or problem in any country. These radio stations are also helpful in dealing with the natural calamities. This role was visible during the 2005 earthquake. The radio stations besides their regular transmission also aired the names and information about the missing people and injured people so that they may be contacted by their relatives. Not only had this but the radio proved itself in Pakistan when it tried in bringing people out of that trauma that the nation had gone through. FM media and Politics: The emergency in Pakistan: During emergency rule in Pakistan, when all media had to go through dark phase and when people had no access to any medium, before moving towards internet as media , people of Pakistan had tried FM stations. H.Yousaf(2009) says that people had been using FM radio broadcasts and cell phones as a way to organize and disseminate information. She adds that the emergent, ad hoc, and hyper local networked public spheres thus created served the public well under emergency rule. According to the writer the medium did not emerge as a site for civic engagement or community building. This was due to the fact that the FM channels both private and public were banned to air news and current affairs even before the emergency rule. According to PEMRA regulations the FM stations were supposed to broadcast diversified mixture of programs specializing in education, information, entertainment, culture and other areas. Initially this clause was interpreted to mean that no form of news is allowed. Community radios are thought to be daily life radio which guides you to make your day easier. This may be by telling you the right road to your office or keeping and umbrella in case of forecast rain. The city radio of Karachi according to H.Yousaf, played the role of community radio during 2008 Karachi riots. It kept on alerting people with traffic updates. FM stations: The common FM stations that are accessible in the federal capital are: FM 101 This is the channel of Radio Pakistan. The channel was specially introduced for the youth of Pakistan. The content of the channels involve regular programming with strict ethical code of conduct. FM 101 does not enjoy a complete freedom of expression since it comes under a government body. FM 101 also airs its transmission on dish TV. FM 100 FM 100 was the first and a leading channel. It has maintained its standard of content. All the content aired on FM100 is in respect to the culture and traditions of Pakistan. FM 96.4 FM 96.4 is relatively new. The channel is a simple entertainment channel. The channel has RJs for whole day. FM 94 It is an English channel. The channel is called Planet 94. This is an entertainment channel which airs the entertaining content in English. FM 92.4 This is a specialized community radio station from Islamabad Traffic Police. The channel specialises in traffic management information and education. The channel is localized therefore it airs special content for traffic. FM 89 This is an English based channel. The name of the channel is city FM 89. Its target audience is English speaking foreigners and overseas Pakistani who have returned to Pakistan. Many people call it a elite class or upper class radio station. It currently operates four stations across Pakistan: Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad and Faisalabad. FM 91: FM 91 is another English channel. It is owned by an advertising agency. Listening to 91gives an impression of it set to be a top dog. This maintains the Pakistani culture and does not westernize the content at the value of Pakistani culture. The RJs at FM 91 seem to be more Pakistani speaking English. The channel also airs Urdu music at time. The channel enjoys the ratio of music and content at 70:30 in terms of language Urdu and English. So the channel cannot be categorized complete English. FM99 Targeting the lower middle and middle class of Pakistan 99 has gained popularity in masses. The channel also airs programs on current affairs and news. It also airs programs in other languages like dari and Pashtu. FM 93 FM 93 is also a channel of Radio Pakistan. It specializes in sports. The channel airs live coverage of the cricket matches of Pakistan. FM 106.2 This is a musical special since it does not have any RJ. The channel only has music aired all the time. Besides that the channel airs BBC sports news 3 to 4 times a day. It is also a cricket specialized station because it also airs the coverage of the cricket matches but no other sports. Content of FM stations: If the content of above mentioned fm channels is examined closely there would be clearly seen that these fm channels or purely entertainment based. The news content is not mainly focused by these channels if we see them collectively. But after examining them on individual level the findings are different from channel to channel. The FM stations in Pakistan are mostly entertainment based. This entertainment mainly is through live shows that RJs conduct and play music on the whole. They have a link time defined by their company. The linked time refers to the time that they speak on air. In between this link time, music is played. Many radio stations are now running programs for women issue and even youth or children based as well. But the format of the programs is more or less the same. The special programs that focus on women issue or any other will have some experts in it talking on the issue and being contacted by local women through telephone in case of any query. Another benchmark that the radio station of Pakistan has set is to have a Ghazal program at the late hours of the day. The programs of the radio stations can be said to be monotonous. Any FM station will have a special music hour, a specialised program, a night time ghazal program and regular music based shows. The radio station should keep in mind the program that it has to present. While planning a program, the length and utility of the program? How long the program will be, its frequency and also its consequences. Keep in view what will be the consequences of your programs and will it be anything utilizable for the society or not. The news element on radio seems to lack some technicalities. A good new bulletin on radio can become a cause of attraction for the listeners. The main function of news and current affairs on FM channel is to aware people and trains them. Easy access to information leads to educated society and once the society is educated it gains the confidence to play its role in nation building. According to MA research publication (2009) Presently, FM radio stations are working on big and small towns, and highways but many radio stations avoid broadcasting news due to strict and tough policies of PEMRA. In fact, in the beginning PEMRA had not allowed the private sector radio stations to present news and current affairs programs, but now after the PEMRA has relaxed its rules, some FM radio stations have began news and current affairs programs. However, the FM radios presenting news programs face shortage of trained and experienced staff, having a keen news sense and command on technical aspects of news. Moreover, the listeners want immediate information about major happenings while the FM radios due to lack of proper staff fail to provide them correct and timely news. They further write that The FM stations do not have trained and experienced people. That is why the standard of the news and current affairs is not up to the mark and satisfactory. The stations should have a co de of conduct for the people from news and current affairs. There is a big way difference in the content of public and private channels. The public channels fm 101 and fm 93 have got different focus and preferences. They give hour to hour detailed news bulletin and they also broadcast news programs, news documentaries, dialogues, and promotional content for the state authorities. If we examine the news content of these two channels they can considered being puppets in the hands of government. The activities and events of the authorities are also given a prominent coverage by these two channels. This is what we can take as a drawback of these channels but if we see the positive side it is found after analyzing their content that these channels are very patriotic and loyal. Every national day is celebrated by fm 101 and fm 93 with specially designed program line. As far as the music collection is concerned, Indian songs are not allowed to air through fm 101 and fm 93. When the content of both the channels is compared with each other, it is found that fm 101 has a conventional and sober tone while fm 93 is designed according to the demand of todays trends. Its more lively and dynamic in its program formats and content even fm 93 is given more freedom as compared to fm 101. Another good aspect of these two channels is they give a significant importance to decency of the content and they are strictly monitored to maintain the civility in the programs. Radio junkies are not allowed to use bold topics or bold and indecent words in their conversation. Very keen attention is given to the Urdu pronunciation and dialogue delivery of the presenters. You would find an excellent selection and delivery of words uttered by the presenters in the programs especially in the news bulletin. When it comes to the private channels fm 100 is the one which comes at the top of this league in terms of decency, standard and quality content. The best thing about fm 100 is it keeps its decency and follow the moral values but also comes in the league of modern channels. It fulfils the demand of todays youth but doesnt adopt cheap methods to increase its popularity. The listenership of this channel is very high just because of this reason. It wouldnt be wrong if we call it a well balanced fm channel of Pakistan. The news bulletin is aired after every hour and there are also some programs designed to discuss the social and political issues. This channel doesnt focus on news content that much as compared to the other channels. It focuses on the traditional and culture oriented program formats. Fm 99 is considered to come under the popular channels. This channel gives a great focus to the news content as well. The channel is also known for its over-entertainment content and program formats. It caters each and every strata of society. It doesnt pay much attention to the decency of the content and language used by the presenters most of the times cross the borders of civility. The channel hired presenters from every region and designed the programs in many regional languages as well. There is no restriction on the selection of songs. Fm 106.2 is a pure entertainment channel. It is owned by ARY, a reputed television channel of Pakistan. It airs nonstop music 24 hours a day. There wasnt any presenter in the channel when it was started but it was just focusing on airing the music all the time. Now they have started some programs but most of the time nonstop music is aired from the channel. News content is not given attention by this fm channel. FM 91 as caters elite class keeps the essence of parent culture in its programs. Most of RJs on the channel are with neutral accent. Their RJs do not Americanize their accents while speaking English. The channel is purely an entertainment channel. They have special designed programs for peace, patriotism and peace promotion. Another 24 hour entertainment channel plays mostly English, Hindi and Urdu music. The channel also has the privilege to be the first in playing its part for the community betterment. The program was specially designed for the youngsters to seek advice from experienced people to pursue their career. As far as RJs of FM91 are concerned, well this channel has maintained a set standard in hiring its RJs. So you will find good RJs on this station who not only are well groomed in their personalities but they add something to the society through this powerful medium that they have. Another radio station launched by the Islamabad traffic police, is FM 92.4. This can be categorized under a community radio since it performs some tasks of a community radio. But the tasks that it performs for community are limited to traffic and road problems only. In a way this can also be called a specialized radio which is dealing a single department. The content aired is not up to the mark since the RJs at the station seem to be amateur. They are not well trained or experienced. The station has stick policy to play only the national music and no other type. The channel airs the traffic update of Rawalpindi and Islamabad from time to time. Along with that they keep on playing promos that comprise of traffic rules and road ethics. FM94 and 96.4 are comparatively new in line. FM 94 is still struggling with target audience since the channel has still not made it to favourites of any group. This is another English channel that airs all English content. It is also a creation of Radio Pakistan. Since it is a public owned station therefore it is faced with lot many restrictions when compared with other English stations. FM 94.6 is Urdu channel. It is purely an entertainment channel. The channel faces the same issues of substandard content that other Urdu stations also suffer from. FM stations Network: The FM station like TV stations in Pakistan can find a common ground and produce a networking for the betterment of the field. For the betterment two declarations have already been conducted which are discussed below: Murree Declaration: Pakistan Press Foundation (PPF) in collaboration with International Broadcasting Bureau of Voice of America (VOA) organized a five-day workshop at Shangrila Hotel, Murree from May 14 to May 18, 2006, which was attended by local and foreign FM broadcasters and university representatives. The workshop participants approved the following declaration: 1. A community radio forum should be established in Pakistan. 2. PEMRA should review and amend its rules and policies to help in development of community radio in Pakistan. 3. PEMRA should allow the community radios to present news and current affairs programs. 4. Strategy should be formed for booting freedom of expression, ensuring security and safety of people related to mass media, and further straightening of media organizations. 5. Network should be formed between participants of workshop. 6. Universities should set up training academies for broad casters of all communities in their mass communication/ journalism departments. 7. The radio stations set up in the earthquake affected areas should be allowed to continue their broadcasting, and they should also be given status of community radios. 8. A network of campus radios should be established in Pakistani universities. 9. Pakistan Press Foundation should be requested to continue its training workshops for the capacity building of community broadcasters. 10. The government should ensure peoples access to information at every level A six-member committee comprised Mr. Razi Rizvi of Voice of America Urdu Service, Mr. Owais Aslam Ali Secretary General Pakistan Press Foundation, Mr. Sajjad Paracha of Mass Communication Department University of Bahawalpur, Ms. Shazia Gul of Mass Communication Department University of Peshawar, Mr. Aijaz Ahmed of Mass Communication Department University of Baluchistan Quetta, and Mr. Muhammad Rafiq Bhatti, Deputy Controller Radio Pakistan Muzaffarabad drafted the declaration. Rawalakot Declaration: Pakistan Press Foundation in collaboration with Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung(FES) organized a workshop on Development of FM Radio in Pakistan at the Himalaya International Hotel Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir on August 9-10, 2008, which was attended by the station managers and broadcasters of 23 FM radio stations of Pakistan. They approved following declaration: 1. The government should make laws to ensure access of FM radio information at every level. 2. A guar